Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 33 (2001) 179– 190 www.elsevier.com/locate/archger Dementia following posterior cortical atrophy—a descriptive clinical case report Nages Nagaratnam *, Kujan Nagaratnam, Daniel Jolley, Allan Ting Blacktown–Mount Druitt Health, Blacktown, NSW 2148, Australia Received 5 December 2000; received in revised form 4 June 2001; accepted 6 June 2001 Abstract Whether posterior cortical atrophy is a distinct entity or a variant of one of the other degenerative processes continues to be debated. We describe five patients four of whom had bilateral changes of posterior cortical atrophy on the CT scan. These four had a cluster of symptoms consistent with parieto-occiptial dysfunction together with a spectrum of dementia. The fifth patient with unilateral changes had optic ataxia, apraxia of gait and dementia. Three of the five patients were heavy drinkers of alcohol but any direct causal link between alcohol and posterior cortical atrophy is tenuous but alcohol could be a consideration in lowering the threshold for dementia in conjunction with other determinants. The study revealed there is little or no difficulty in recognizing posterior cortical atrophy in the early stages and the end stages are sufficiently uniform to reduce the diagnostic uncertainty. © 2001 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Posterior cortical atrophy; Lobar atrophy; Optic ataxia; Apraxia of gaze; Asimultagnosia; Gerstmann’s syndrome 1. Introduction Cortical lobar atrophies are more common than is realized. Pick (1892) described a man with dementia and aphasia, autopsy revealing changes primarily in the left temporal lobe. Pick’s disease could be considered a form of localized cerebral atrophy. Mesulam (1982) described a slowly progressive language disorder in which * Corresponding author. Tel.: +61-2-9881-8000; fax: + 61-2-9881-8020. 0167-4943/01/$ - see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 4 9 4 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 7 9 - 0 180 N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 radiological and histological changes were in the left perisylvian region. Predominant involvement of the frontal and temporal lobes give rise to fronto-temporal degeneration (FTD) and often manifests as either overactivity and disinhibition, or as apathy. Emphasis on one or the other has lead to two subtypes, a frontal variant of FTD (Gregory et al., 1999) and a temporal variant (Edwards-Lee et al., 1997). Lobar dysfunction attributable to posterior parietal and occipital regions have been described. Benson et al. (1988) described a syndrome characterized by early ataxia, anomia, agraphia, acalculia, visual agnosia, disorientation, disorders of ocular fixation and transcortical sensory aphasia following lobar atrophy of the occipital cortex. There is as yet no clear statement as to whether posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) is a specific entity. Nevertheless the concept that PCA is a definite entity is not likely to disappear even though unresolved issues remain. This descriptive study of five patients with PCA was undertaken towards emphasising the conceptual shifts and new information that has guided our current view of PCA. 2. Materials and methods This is a retrospective study of five patients admitted to the Blacktown– Mount Druitt Health service over a period of 1 year. The inclusion criteria for the study was the satisfaction of CT scan incidence of posterior cortical atrophy with or without impairment of ocular fixation. Optic ataxia was defined as inability to point accurately to a target under visual guidance. The patient was asked to touch a number point on a picture, and to trace a line drawing. Apraxia of gaze was the inability to gaze directly when desired and was tested by asking the patient to look at an object held on the patient’s side and then to look at the examiner’s nose. Simultagnosia refers to the inability of the patient to appreciate the significance of a picture or scene as a whole although individual parts are recognised. The patient was asked to pick the objects on a tray. The presence of dementia was established on clinical grounds using a modified form of the Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly (CAMDEX) (Roth et al., 1986). The CAMDEX composes a number of items, namely medical and psychiatric history, physical examination, mental state examination, cognitive tests and an interview with a relative or carer. For the cognitive part of the examination Folstein’s Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) (Folstein et al., 1975) was administered and supplemented by such items as the ability to abstract, calculate and for perceptional abilities. Interview with the relative or carer included such information as orientation, memory, behaviour and the ability to maintain everyday activities. The diagnosis of dementia was based on DSM-III criteria for primary degenerative dementia (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). The degree of language impairment was obtained from the MMSE after Chui et al. (1985) adding the scores on selected items namely, naming of two objects (2), repetition (1), 3-stage motor commands (3), written commands (1) and writing a sentence (1) and defined as 0–8. The Barthel Index (Mahoney and N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 181 Barthel, 1965) commonly used as a rating scale of physical dependency was scored on a shortened form. The overall disability was based on the Rankin Grades for accessory functional disability (Rankin, 1957) and relied on information obtained from caregivers. Severity of the dementia was graded based on the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) of Hughes et al. (1982). All the patients underwent physical examination together with a meticulous neurological examination. Routine laboratory investigations and special investigations were not done on some of the patients for reasons of cost. 3. Results 3.1. Case 1 GW, a 59-year-old engine driver, was retrenched 2 years earlier for redundancy. He was escorted by his wife, who was the informant. There was a history of fracture of the skull in early childhood. He had been a smoker and heavy drinker over several years, but more recently had reduced his intake. It was alleged he was forgetful. He was described by his wife as having a placid disposition, but had of late become unstable at times, argumentative and ‘cranky’. His functional capacity was assessed by the wife’s report. He was capable of basic self care, but had difficulty with dressing (often confusing front and back). There was no history of mental illness, nor has he had any symptoms of disordered perception, depression or cerebro-vascular accident. Physical examination revealed normal vital signs. He was normotensive and there were no past abnormalities in the respiratory or cardiovascular systems. Neurological examination revealed normal muscle strength and bulk, and there was no detectable rigidity. Visual fields were normal, although he had impaired ocular fixation — when confronted with objects it took a long time for him to recognise and name the object. He had no difficulty in naming colour. Finger movements were not possible under visual guidance. The gait was normal. He was alert and somewhat cooperative. He was poorly oriented for year, month and date, but not to city. He could not spell the word ‘world’. He had impaired memory, remembering only one of three objects after 5 min. Remote memory for personal and historical details was poor. He could not name the present Prime Minister or any former prime ministers. Serial 7s were not possible. He could only make general statements regarding current events. Interpretation of similarities and proverbs were poor. He could not draw the face of the clock and indicate any specific time, nor could he copy 2 or 3 dimensional geometric designs. He could not trace an approximation of the map of Australia, and there was poor coordination of the eye and hand. He had difficulty in reading but could pick all the objects placed in front of him. He could sign his name with difficulty. The CT scan demonstrated enlargement of the posterior horns of both lateral ventricles, with patchy widening of the sulci over the posterior aspect of the brain (Fig. 1(a)). GW had evidence of parieto-occipital involvement manifesting as dressing apraxia, memory deficits, 182 N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 abnormalities of ocular fixation and required considerable time to locate target visually and could not use his hands to guide visual search together with alexia and agraphia. 3.2. Case 2 DC, a 74-year-old right-handed retired farmer of Italian extraction, was seen with a history of progressive deterioration in his ability to converse over 4–5 years. He was escorted by his wife. Apart from this his previous health was of no clinical significance. He hardly drank and did not smoke. He was born in Italy and migrated to Australia at 55. Direct enquiry into mood, capacity of pleasure, thoughts about the future, loss of appetite, weight and sleep, did not reveal any symptoms of significant depression. There was no history of suspiciousness, para- Fig. 1. (a) Case 1 CT scan showing dilatation of the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles and prominence of the sulci in the parieto-occipital regions bilaterally. (b) Case 2 showing dilatation of the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles and cortical atrophy. N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 183 noia or behavioural problems. His mood was described as neutral. Frequently he mistakes his wife for someone else. He had poor hearing. According to his wife he was independent for most activities of basic self-care. General physical examination was unremarkable. Neurological examination found him to be alert and cooperative. The ‘head turning sign’ was positive. He scored poorly in the MMSE. He was poorly orientated. He could not name the current year, nor the year of his birth or street where he lived. Remote memory was poor for personal and historical details. He could not recall the name of Italy’s leader during the second World War, Mussolini, even given the name. He was unable to perform verbal or written calculations, or simple instructions mobilising single digits. Spontaneous speech was markedly reduced and had significant slurring of the words. Comprehension of complex phrases and multistage commands was impaired. He could not read or write. He could not draw the face of a clock or copy two and three dimensional geometric designs. He pointed erratically to objects, lacked eye and arm coordination, and was unable to trace a hand drawing. When about to sit on the chair he nearly missed the seat. He picked seven of the ten objects presented in front of him, and could name objects and colour. The CNS was grossly intact. Muscle strength and bulk was normal. There was no detectable rigidity. The gait was normal. The CT scan of the brain showed dilatation of the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles bilaterally (Fig. 1(b)). DL had impaired visuospatial skills, Balint’s syndrome, agraphia, alexia, acalculia, environmental agnosia, language and cognitive impairment. 3.3. Case 3 LS, a 72-year-old right handed woman was seen for poor vision and forgetfulness. The exact duration of the illness was unclear but according to the daughter who accompanied her it could be several years. She lives with her husband and was independent for all activities of daily living. There was no history of strokes, alcoholism, mental illness, nor was she on any medication. She was eating poorly and has lost weight, but there were no symptoms of depression. Physical examination revealed a blood pressure of 120/80 mmHg. There was no evidence of cardiac decompensation. The CNS was grossly intact apart from the oculomotor signs. There was no detectable rigidity. She was alert but poorly orientated in time and place. She could not name the street and number of her house, the current year and month, nor could she recall the year of her birth. Her ability to calculate was impaired, as was her ability to abstract. She recalled one of three objects at three minutes. She could not draw the face of a clock to indicate the time. Copying of 2–3-dimensional geometric designs was poor. She could not read or write, and scored 14/30 on the MMSE. She had difficulty in ocular fixation. Object naming was variable, for instance she took a long time to name the pen shown and knew its use, but when shown the glasses she could not name it nor could she recognise even with palpation. When told it was a 184 N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 Fig. 2. (a) Case 3 CT scan showing dilatation of the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles bilaterally, cortical atrophy and widened Sylvian fissures. (b) Case 4 dilatation of the posterior horns. pair of glasses she could not describe its use. She had poor arm/eye coordination and could not trace the outline of a map. She however picked all the objects on the tray. She was able to recognise colour. Visual fields were difficult to test. The CT scan of the brain showed significant dilation of the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles suggestive of bilateral posterior cerebral atrophy (Fig. 2(a)). LS exhibited components of Balint’s syndrome (Balint, 1909), higher visual dysfunction, acalculia, agraphia with cognitive and memory impairment. N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 185 3.4. Case 4 RS, a 78-year-old man, presented with fluctuating confusion following a fall. He had tripped when feeding his dogs and fell backwards hitting the back of his head. He had lost consciousness momentarily. He had been living with a friend of his, although no clear history of his pre-morbid cognitive status was available. He is said to have had problems with his vision and had shortly prior to the event had complained of blurring of vision and disturbance of colour perception. His family members with whom he had not kept close contact, said that he over several months he had been telephoning them repeatedly over trivial matters. The vital signs were unremarkable. There were significant findings in the cardiovascular or respiratory systems. Neurological examination revealed his visual fields to be intact. The pupils were equal and reacted to light and near response. He had difficulty in comprehending what was said. He remained confused and when seen 2 weeks later he was alert but with worsened attention span. He was unable to gaze directly when requested. A further 2 weeks later he could not coordinate hand and eye movements and pointed erratically to objects. He could not touch the finger of the examiner. He could not name ordinary objects, their use or colour. His speech output was markedly reduced and he had difficulty with comprehension. He could neither read nor write. No formal memory or cognitive tests were possible. On neurological examination muscle strength and bulk were normal, but he could neither stand nor walk. The post-stroke period was complicated by acute renal failure resulting from dehydration. He was discharged to a nursing home facility. The CT scan done soon after the initial event showed a small right occipital intracerebral haemorrhage with extension into the posterior horn of the right lateral ventricle. The left posterior horn was dilated. A repeat CT scan done 2 weeks later showed dilatation of both posterior horns (Fig. 2(b)) RS showed components of Balint’s syndrome, acalculia, agraphia and visual agnosia for objects. 3.5. Case 5 AC, a 60-year-old man, was seen with a history of having suffered a seizure secondary to non-compliance with medication. He was on phenytoin and carbamazepine. There was a strong history of heavy drinking over several years. He was alert with near normal attention span. He performed poorly in the MMSE. Speech output was reduced with poor comprehension for complex phrases. He had difficulty naming objects and their use, but could identify colours. Neurologically there were no focal localising signs. There was no detectable rigidity and could not coordinate eye and hand. The gait was abnormal broad-based and sway. Tandem stance and tandem walk were not possible. Routine investigations, including B12, iron studies, folate and TSH were all normal, while TPPA was negative. CT scan of the brain showed marked dilatation of the posterior horn of the left lateral ventricle with prominent sulci over the occipital and parietal regions (Fig. 3). AC had only optic ataxia, ataxic gait and moderate cognitive and memory impairment and the scan showed only unilateral changes. N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 186 Fig. 3. Case 5 CT scan shows unilateral dilatation of the posterior horn of the left lateral ventricle with prominent sulci over the left parieto-occipital regions. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the individual characteristics, neurological and neurobehavioural changes. 4. Discussion We have described five patients with a cluster of symptoms associated with posterior cortical atrophy. Four had bilateral changes on the CT scan. Their ages ranged from 59 to 78 years with a mean of 71 years and the symptomatology dating back to several years before their presentation. The four patients had visual complaints, forgetfulness and difficulties in communication. All four had features (complete or partial) consistent with Balint’s syndrome (optic ataxia, apraxia of Table 1 The patients characteristics and radiological findings Case Age/sex Symptom/ duration (years) Symptom presentation Other relevant history CT scan Severity of dementia (CDR) 1 59/M Several Head injury/ alcoholism 74/M 72/F 74/M 4-5 Several Years Dilatation of posterior horns As above As above As above 2 2 3 4 5 60/M 2 Reduced speech/ forgetfulness Inability to converse Poor vision Inability to name or recognise objects Poor memory Alcoholism Alcoholism/ epilepsy Dilatation of L-posterior horn atrophy parieto-occipital regions 2 1 3 2–3 N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 187 Table 2 The neurological and neurobehavioral changes Case Balint’s Higher visual Languageb Cognitivec dysfunctiona Gerstmann’s Optic Apraxia Simultagataxia of gaze nosia + + + + + 1 2 3 4 5 a b c Acalculia Agraphia l-r Finger discrimination agnosia + + + + + + + + + − + + − + − + + + + + ND ND ND − ND ND ND ND − ND + + + + − + − + + + 1 2 4 2 2 Severe Severe Moderate Moderate Moderate Alexia and visual agnosia. Language based on MMSE scores 0–8. MMSEB9, severe; 10–20, moderate; \21, mild. gaze and asimultagnosia) and components of Gerstmann’s syndrome (agraphia, acalculia, finger agnosia and right /left discrimination) and a spectrum of dementia. Case 5 had unilateral changes in the left parieto-occipital regions on the CT scan and differed from the others in that he had no oculomotor abnormalities but for optic ataxia. He had an ataxic gait and significant cognitive and memory impairment. Three of the five patients had a history of heavy drinking over several years. Benson et al. (1988) described five patients with progressive dementia who at the onset had higher visual dysfunction and subsequently developing alexia, agraphia, visual agnosia, components of Balint’s and Gerstmann’s syndromes and transcortical sensory aphasia. The memory and cognition were spared until late in the course of the illness. Since then there had been other reports (Kiyosawa et al., 1989; Hof et al., 1990, 1993; Berthier et al., 1991; Levine et al., 1993; Victoroff et al., 1994; Wakai et al., 1994; Ardila et al., 1997). Balint’s syndrome is characterized by optic ataxia, apraxia of gaze and asimultagnosia All four patients had at least two or three components of Balint’s syndrome. Many of the patients with this syndrome had bilateral parieto-occipital lesions and the possibility of a selective involvement of the dorsal occipito-parietal pathways. It has been suggested that Balint’s syndrome results from disconnection rather than to focal posterior damage (Hausser et al., 1980). Case 5 with unilateral changes had only optic ataxia which could follow unilateral damage in the parieto-occipital region (Haaxma and Kuypers, 1975; Nagaratnam et al., 1998) or further forwards due to disruption of its occipito-frontal connections (Nagaratnam et al., 1998). A lesion in the left occipito-temporal junction gives rise to another group referred to as ventral simultagnosia and associated with agnosia, prosoagnosia and alexia and attributed to the ventral occipito-fugal pathways and the occurrence of Gerstmann’s syndrome (Gerstmann, 1940) to involvement of the adjacent inferior parietal lobes. Posterior cortical dysfunction may have a variety of causes such as progressive degenerative cortical disease, vascular, tumour or metabolic causes. Three of the 188 N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 five patients in this study were heavy drinkers. In several disorders there is a predilection for certain parts of the brain to be affected, for example in Alzheimer’s disease the hippocampus has an increased vulnerability and occurs early and Alzheimer’s disease has been characterised as ‘a hippocampal dementia’ (Ball et al., 1985). Focal damage to the corpus callosum a hallmark of Marchiafava-Bignani disease is a rare complication of chronic severe alcoholism and in the late stage of the disease the MRI shows diffuse atrophy and focal necrosis of the corpus callosum (Chang et al., 1992) and the signs are that of interhemispheric disconnection. The frontal hypometabolism that had been demonstrated in chronic alcoholism did not correlate with the degree of frontal atrophy in the frontal lobes on the MRI which showed a global cortical atrophy. (Boller et al., 1995). Although a causal link between alcohol and PCA seems remote yet alcohol could be a factor interacting with any other factors to reduce the threshold for the progression to dementia. The question is whether the syndrome of posterior cortical atrophy is a distinct entity or a variant of one of the well known tissue processes and had been seen not only with Alzheimer’s disease (Berthier et al., 1991; Victoroff et al., 1994), Pick’s disease, Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease and progressive subcortical gliosis. Although there is a common pattern in its presentation in early Alzheimer’s Disease there is a heterogeniety (Mayeux et al., 1985) and had led to the identification of subtypes (Chui et al., 1985). The visuomotor visuospatial, components of Balint’s syndrome and reading disorders the hallmark of posterior dysfunction occurs in AD. Of the 30 patients with one or more visual deficits due to probable AD 6 had Balint’s syndrome (Mendez et al., 1990). Hof et al. (1990) compared eight patients with AD and Balint’s syndrome early in the course of the illness with AD patients without Balint’s syndrome found there was a greater histological changes of AD in the occipital regions of the former. Other investigators however had shown that in AD patients with visual symptoms there was no such dominance (Levine et al., 1993; Victoroff et al., 1994). Although posterior dysfunction does not represent a single pathology due to an intrinsic disease according to Victoroff et al. (1994) it may not be the pathology but the neurobiological change most relevant to the clinical features. Whether PCA is a specific entity or not depends on: (1) one’s starting point of view; and (2) the need to look beyond what might be expected from the atrophy (Ardila et al., 1997). There are pathological, clinical and radiological evidence for and against PCA being a discrete disease. In support of a definite disease: 1. It is clinically homogenous (Benson et al., 1988; Victoroff et al., 1994). 2. There is little difficulty in recognizing PCA in the early stage of the disorder on clinical evidence. 3. Although it does not represent a single pathology (Alzheimer’s disease; subcortical gliosis; prion diseases), it is the neurobiological changes and not the pathology that are more relevant to the clinical features (Victoroff et al., 1994). 4. The focal cerebral atrophy giving rise to a variety of symptom clusters reflects the distribution of the lesion rather than the pathology. N. Nagaratnam et al. / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 33 (2001) 179–190 189 5. Although there is great difficulty in recognising clinically PCA in the late stages however the end stages of PCA are sufficiently uniform to reduce the diagnostic uncertainty (present study). Against a definite disease: 1. Multiple factors may play a role in its causation and pathogenesis. 2. Dementia presenting with visual abnormalities and focal posterior cerebral atrophy may be due to several other dementing illness (Cogan, 1985; Nissen et al., 1985; Feher et al., 1989). 3. Focal symptoms for instance apraxia or agnosia though unusual does occur in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease and predominantly focal variant is a common occurrence. 4. Focal attenuation as part of a generalised degenerative disease could give rise to progressive focal neurological deficit (Crystal et al., 1982). 5. Precise pathology cannot be predicted clinically. 6. The pathological changes are not specifically associated with PCA (Benson et al., 1988; Victoroff et al., 1994) and the underlying heterogeneity may represent atypical variant of AD, Picks or other distinct entities. None of the above is satisfactory on its own and it may be difficult to synthesize them with a single description without oversimplification. 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